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The word ''hijab'' refers to both the head-covering traditionally worn by some Muslim women and modest Islamic styles of dress in general. The garment has different legal and cultural statuses in various countries. There are countries, including France (since 2004), which have banned the wearing of all overt religious symbols, including the ''hijab'' (a Muslim headscarf, literally Arabic "to cover"), in public schools and universities or government buildings.〔(French MPs back headscarf ban ) BBC News (BBC). Retrieved on 13 February 2009.〕 Iran, Tunisia (since 1981,〔 lifted in 2011) and Turkey (since 1997,〔(Turkey headscarf ruling condemned ) Al Jazeera English (7 June 2008). Retrieved on February 2009.〕 lifted in 2014) are the only Muslim-majority countries which have banned the ''hijab'' in public schools and universities or government buildings, while Syria banned face veils in universities from July 2010.〔(Syria bans face veils at universities )〕 This ban was lifted during the 2011 Syrian uprising. In other Muslim states such as Morocco,〔Richard Hamilton (6 October 2006) (Morocco moves to drop headscarf ) BBC News (BBC). Retrieved on 13 February 2009.〕 there has been some restriction or discrimination against women who wear the ''hijab''. The ''hijab'' in these cases is seen as a sign of political Islam or fundamentalism against secular government. In the southern communities of Iraq, especially in Najaf and Karbala, ''hijab'' is compulsory. In public places, women there usually wear the ''abaya'', which is a long black cloth that covers the whole body except the face and the hands, in addition to the scarf that only covers the head. However, in private, in governmental institutions and universities, they can wear ''manteaux'' which can be long or short and a scarf. In Baghdad and the northern communities, women have more freedom to wear what they feel comfortable with. Islamic dress, notably the variety of headdresses worn by Muslim women, has become a prominent symbol of the presence of Islam in western Europe. In several countries this adherence to ''hijab'' has led to political controversies and proposals for a legal ban. The Dutch parliament has decided to introduce a ban on face-covering clothing, popularly described as the "burqa ban", although it does not only apply to the Afghan-model ''burqa''. Similar laws have been passed in France and Belgium. Other countries are debating similar legislation, or have more limited prohibitions. Some of them apply only to face-covering clothing such as the ''burqa'', ''boushiya'', or ''niqāb'', while other legislation pertains to any clothing with an Islamic religious symbolism such as the ''khimar'', a type of headscarf. (Some countries already have laws banning the wearing of masks in public, which can be applied to veils that conceal the face). The issue has different names in different countries, and "the veil" or "''hijab''" may be used as general terms for the debate, representing more than just the veil itself, or the concept of modesty embodied in ''hijab''. Although the Balkans and Eastern Europe have indigenous Muslim populations, most Muslims in western Europe are members of immigrant communities. The issue of Islamic dress is linked with issues of immigration and the position of Islam in Western Europe. ==Europe== (詳細はFranco Frattini said in November 2006, that he did not favour a ban on the ''burqa''.〔Reformatorisch dagblad: ''(Brussel tegen boerkaverbod )'', 30 November 2006.〕 This is apparently the first official statement on the issue of prohibition of Islamic dress from the European Commission, the executive of the European Union. When Tawakkul Karman, First Arab Woman and second youngest Nobel Peace Laureate, was asked about her ''hijab'' by journalists and how it is not proportionate with her level of intellect and education, she replied, "Man in early times was almost naked, and as his intellect evolved he started wearing clothes. What I am today and what I’m wearing represents the highest level of thought and civilization that man has achieved, and is not regressive. It’s the removal of clothes again that is regressive back to ancient times."〔()〕 Islamic dress is also seen as a symbol of the existence of parallel societies, and the failure of integration: in 2006 British Prime Minister Tony Blair described it as a "mark of separation".〔(Blair's concerns over face veils ) BBC News Online. 17 October 2006.〕 Visible symbols of a non-Christian culture conflict with the national identity in European states, which assumes a shared (non-religious) culture. Proposals for a ban may be linked to other related cultural prohibitions: the Dutch politician Geert Wilders proposed a ban on ''hijab'', on Islamic schools, on new mosques, and on non-western immigration. In France and Turkey, the emphasis is on the secular nature of the state, and the symbolic nature of the Islamic dress, and bans apply at state institutions (courts, civil service) and in state-funded education. These bans also cover Islamic headscarves, which in some other countries are seen as less controversial, although law court staff in the Netherlands are also forbidden to wear Islamic headscarves on grounds of 'state neutrality'. An apparently less politicised argument is that in specific professions (teaching), a ban on "veils" (''niqab'') is justified, since face-to-face communication and eye-contact is required. This argument has featured prominently in judgments in Britain and the Netherlands, after students or teachers were banned from wearing face-covering clothing. Public and political response to such prohibition proposals is complex, since by definition they mean that the government decides on individual clothing. Some non-Muslims, who would not be affected by a ban, see it as an issue of civil liberties, as a slippery slope leading to further restrictions on private life. A public opinion poll in London showed that 75 percent of Londoners support "the right of all persons to dress in accordance with their religious beliefs".〔Guardian: (Livingstone decries vilification of Islam ), 20 November 2006.〕 In another poll in the United Kingdom by Ipsos MORI, 61 percent agreed that "Muslim women are segregating themselves" by wearing a veil, yet 77 percent thought they should have the right to wear it.〔Ipsos MORI (Muslim Women Wearing Veils ).〕 In a later FT-Harris poll conducted in 2010 after the French ban on face-covering went into effect, an overwhelming majority in Italy, Spain, Germany and the UK supported passing such bans in their own countries.〔(Atlantic Council )〕 The headscarf is perceived to be a symbol of the clash of civilizations by many. Others would also argue that the increase of laws surrounding the banning of headscarves and other religious paraphernalia has led to an increase in not just the sales of headscarves and ''niqabs'', but an increase in the current religiosity of the Muslim population in Europe: as both a product of and a reaction to westernization.〔Scott, 2007, pg. 5〕 Currently, France, Belgium and the Netherlands are three European countries with specific bans on face-covering dress, such as the Islamic ''niqab'' or ''burqa''.〔The Telegraph (Netherlands to Ban the Burka )〕 Since the bans took effect, there have been several instances of Muslims perpetrating violence and acts of vandalism in apparently coordinated protests, often aimed at police officers enforcing the laws.〔Flanders News:(Veiled woman breaks police officer's nose )〕 The French law against covering the face in public, known as the "Burqa ban", was challenged and taken to the European Court of Human Rights which upheld the law on 1 July 2014, accepting the argument of the French government that the law was based on "a certain idea of living together". 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Hijab by country」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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